Effect of Internal Migration of Families on the Educational Achievement of their Children

This study explores the effects of the internal migration of parents with children on their children's educational achievement. PubMed and HINARI search engines perform advanced searches with specific keywords such as children, migration and educational achievement to extract relevant articles. During the review, 14 articles were identified by using the PRISMA flow diagram for the process of conducting a systematic review. The inclusion criteria specified internal migrant children with their parents and educational outcomes associated with them, with a publication date after within ten years. The search process yielded 8 articles that met the inclusion criteria for the final review. Positive effects are observed on educational achievement for children migrating with parents. Socioeconomic status, education level, and duration of migration influence the educational outcomes of children. Family and community support are important in coping with the difficulties of children's education. Policymakers and educators should address the challenges faced by internal migrant children.

two broad types of migration, internal migration, and international migration (Shryock et al., 1976).International migration is the movement of people across international borders for the purpose of settlement.International migrants change their habitual residence from one country to another (Kitchin, 2009).Western Europe was engrossed in the significant numbers of workers from developing countries, initially drawn primarily from southern Europe; by the late 1960s, they mostly came from developing countries in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Middle East (Massey et al., 1993).Emigration to rich countries is a means of escaping poverty, a means for the poor to increase their incomes and raise the necessary resources for their children's education (Cattaneo, 2009;Sharma et al., 2021).The academic achievement of the students is positively and significantly impacted by the father's income.It has been discovered that children of fathers with higher salaries had higher GPAs.Additionally, parents' expectations and perceptions of their child's future favourably influence that child's performance ( (Soharwardi et al., 2020).
Migration is a significant demographic phenomenon that shapes human settlement patterns and plays a vital role in human development.It refers to the movement of individuals from one defined geographical or political area to another.The decision to migrate is often driven by the desire to improve one's current life situation and is a common phenomenon among various species, driven by disparities.The history of migration dates back thousands of years, and it has been a prominent aspect of world history in every era.Migration has accelerated during certain periods, such as the 19th century, the 1930s, and the 1990s, influenced by factors like globalization and economic opportunities.Different factors, known as push and pull factors, contribute to people leaving their original location and settling elsewhere.Structural elements of society can also play a role in facilitating or hindering migration.There are various ways to classify migration, including typologies such as primitive, impelled, forced, free, and mass migration.Migration can also be categorized based on voluntary/involuntary, permanent/temporary, and international/internal criteria.International migration involves the movement of people across international borders with the intention of settling in another country.Developed countries, particularly in Western Europe, have attracted workers from developing countries over time, providing opportunities to escape poverty and improve income levels.Additionally, academic achievement among students can be influenced positively by factors such as the father's income, parental expectations, and perceptions of their child's future.
Migration plays a vital role in shaping patterns of human settlement and is an essential aspect of human development (Bell et al., 2015).It refers to a change in usual residence between specific geographical, political, or statistical areas (Shryock et al., 1976;Suwal, 2014).The decision to migrate is typically driven by the desire to improve one's current life situation (Pehkonen, 2005), as creatures throughout history have sought to change their habitat for better opportunities (Dudu, 2018;Learmonth, 2019;Molloy et al., 2011;Riss, 2014), often due to disparities (Baganha et al., 2006).Migration has been present throughout history, with its origins dating back 120,000 years in Africa's Rift Valley (Koser, 2009;Manning, 2013).
Process of migration involves a deliberation and consideration period that can vary in duration among family members (Pehkonen, 2005).Migration has witnessed periods of acceleration in the 19th century to the 1930s and again in the 1990s, driven by factors such as globalization and economic opportunities (Bentley et al., 2005).Push and pull factors influence individuals to leave their original locations and settle elsewhere (Hahn & Klute, 2007).Structural elements in society act as drivers that can facilitate, enable, hinder, or trigger migration (Hager, 2021).
Migration can be classified in various ways in human geography.Petersen's typology distinguishes five types of migration: primitive, impelled, forced, free, and mass ( (Petersen, 1958).Classification can also be based on criteria such as voluntary-involuntary, permanenttemporary, and international-internal (Riss, 2014).For demographic purposes, migration is broadly categorized into internal migration and international migration (Shryock et al., 1976).International migration involves individuals changing their habitual residence from one country to another (Kitchin, 2009) In Western Europe, there has been a significant influx of workers from developing countries, initially from southern Europe and later from Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Middle East (Massey et al., 1993).Emigration to wealthier countries is often seen as a means for the poor to escape poverty and improve their incomes, enabling them to provide resources for their children's education (Cattaneo, 2009).
This study explores the effects of the internal migration of parents with children on their children's educational achievement.The academic achievement of the students is positively and significantly impacted by father's income.It has been discovered that children of fathers with higher salaries had higher GPAs.Additionally, parents' expectations and perceptions of their child's future have a favorable influence on that child's performance (Soharwardi et al., 2020).Internal migration of families with children can have a significant impact on children's education, including the disruption of educational continuity, adjustment to new school environments, access to resources, social relationships, and parental involvement (Berker, 2009).Recognizing and addressing these challenges through targeted interventions, such as providing academic support, facilitating social integration, and promoting parental engagement, can help mitigate the negative effects of internal migration on children's education and promote positive educational outcomes (Akar & Şen, 2017;Berker, 2009).

DATA AND METHODS
The purpose and reasons for conducting a systematic review followed the PRISMA format (Liberati et al., 2009) to explore the relationship between children's internal migration with their parents and their educational achievements.Locating and retrieving relevant literature is challenging yet crucial to the success of a systematic review.The material sourced provides the information from which evidence and conclusions are drawn.For many, the literature search may appear overwhelming.However, establishing a systematic search strategy before commencing the literature search is essential to suitable and effective information retrieval.
This planning assists in meeting the systematic review requirements and answering the research question.Developing a search strategy, the scope of the search, its thoroughness, and the time available to conduct it all need to be considered.For the systematic review, I used PubMed and Hinari search engines.To find articles, advanced searches of both PubMed and HINARY were performed using the terms "internal migration" AND children AND education in the title and Abstract.13 articles were found in PubMed, and three articles were found in Hinari.Out of them two articles were found to be common on both search engines.Therefore, there were 14 articles in total, 6 of these articles were not related to the topic because the searched words were used in other contexts in Abstract.
The study population is internal migrant children with their parents but migrants' children for further study were excluded.Migrant children with parents and their education is a major study area.The educational outcomes known to be associated with internally migrant children with parents.The research articles published within the last decade was included whether qualitative or quantitative.With using the search engine, articles extract through PubMed's and HINARI.The terms "internal migration", "Children", and "education" in the title/abstract were used for the study.
First, to search for related literature, "internal migration", children and education were searched separately, and the results were screened by essential components.Bibliographic database searching retrieved 804 articles for the term Internal migration, 367082 articles for the term children, and 491178 articles for the term education.When searching for articles in a search engine, in PubMed and Hinari advanced search, just put "internal migration," and Children found 37 articles and explored the literature with the term "internal migration," and education in the title Abstract 46 articles were found.Similarly, when searching for articles in a search engine, in PubMed's and Hinari advanced search, just put "internal migration", AND Children AND Education in the title.The abstract found 19 full-text articles were retained for review.Of these, 8 articles met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final review.When searching for articles in a search engine, in PubMed's advanced search, just put "internal migration", Children and education in the title Abstract.First, to search for related literature, "internal migration", children and education were searched separately and the results were screened by essential components.Studies measured the educational achievement of migrant children with their parents.The characteristics of the final eligible studies are provided in figure 1.The literature selection criteria focused on studies published within the last 10 years, encompassing qualitative, quantitative, cross-sectional, and longitudinal designs exploring internal migration's impact on children's educational achievement.PubMed and HINARI search engines were used for data extraction as well as reviewing abstracts to ensure alignment with the research focus.Detailed inclusion criteria are presented in figure 1.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Migration has been a topic of significant research and is a complex process that is yet to be clearly defined (Bhugra, 2004;Castles, 2016;IOM & UNDP, 2019).Approximately one in seven people worldwide has experienced migration (Fellmeth et al., 2018).Migration often involves individuals temporarily residing in a place different from their legal home for business or employment purposes (Peil, 1995) and these migrants may bring their children with them or start families in their new destinations (Cockx, 2022).The decision to migrate is driven by the pursuit of better opportunities and sustainable livelihoods (Derenoncourt, 2022;IOM & UNDP, 2019;Tamang et al., 2014).
Parents who migrate for better opportunities prioritize providing their children with improved educational opportunities and successful careers (Basnet et al., 2021).Migration can have both financial benefits and social costs for children, impacting their educational outcomes (Lu, 2014).The migration process itself involves psychological and identity shifts, leading to the emergence of mixed identities (Akhtar, 1995).Migration affects not only the lives of migrants but also the fortunes of those left behind and the communities where migrants settle (Lowell, 2007).
Internal migration refers to a change in residence within national boundaries or geopolitical entities, often driven by factors such as education, economic improvement, natural disasters, or civil disturbances (Rees, 2020;Suwal, 2014).However, statistics on internal migration are still underdeveloped in many countries (Bell et al., 2015).In Nepal, internal migration is primarily from rural to urban areas due to regional disparities in resources, opportunities, and poverty (KC, 2003;Suwal, 2014).Parents may migrate internally to provide better educational opportunities for their children (Basnet et al., 2021).
Educational achievement of children from internal migrant families is influenced by various factors, including parents' socioeconomic status, level of education, duration of migration, and the quality of education in the destination location (Altinyelken, 2009;Cattaneo, 2009;Driessen & Dekkers, 1997;Morrison et al., 1997).However, there is limited research on the educational outcomes of children whose parents migrated internally for employment or their children's education (Blunch & Laderchi, 2015).
Understanding the impact of internal migration with parents on children's educational achievement is crucial for policymakers and educators to address the challenges faced by internal migrant children and improve their educational outcomes.Further research is needed to explore the educational status of internal migrant children in Nepal and identify strategies to support their educational goals (Chang et al., 2017;Sun et al., 2015;Suwal, 2014).
Revenstein's laws of migration describe various patterns and factors influencing migration, including the distance of migration, the creation of streams and counter streams, gender predominance, migration in stages, rural-urban differences, and the influence of economic motives and technology (Tobler, 1995).Migration is driven by disparities in services and amenities between urban and rural areas, with people seeking better facilities in urban areas (Ravenstein, 1885;Ravenstein, 1889).Lee (1966) identifies push and pull factors as reasons for emigration and immigration, influenced by factors associated with the area of origin, area of destination, intervening obstacles, and personal factors.The decision to migrate and the process itself involve a combination of positive and negative factors that attract or repel individuals (Lee, 1966).The family factor plays a significant role in children's resilience and academic performance, with family members providing support and enhancing coping capacities (Hill et al., 2007;Lee et al., 2012).Maslow's theory of motivation suggests that education is a major factor motivating parental migration, as it is seen as an investment for children's success (Maslow, 1943;Purwatiningsih, 2021).Migration is a complex phenomenon influenced by various factors and involves interactions between agency and structure, as well as decisionmaking processes (Carling & Collins, 2018).Learning theories emphasize the acquisition, processing, and retention of information, with cognitive, emotional, contextual, and prior experience factors playing important roles (Killen, 2015;Shackleton-Jones, 2019).The cognitive, behavioral, and socio-cultural aspects are crucial for children's learning (Bandura, 2001;Langford, 2004;Moore, 1999).In Mexico, 12.8% of children were left behind by one or both parents in 2002; similarly, 8.9% of children in Indonesia in 2000.It is increasing in trend.Among children with one or both internal immigrant parents, 4.1% and 3.2% of children, respectively, had immigrant fathers in Mexico in 2002 and Indonesia in 2000, while only 0.2% and 0.3% had immigrant mothers.Similarly, 2.3% and 3.2% were left-behind by both parents, but educational expenditures were lower in Indonesia.Children left behind by international migrant parents seemed to be worse off regarding educational attainment than children of non-migrant parents (Lu et al. (2020).
Regarding the education of children who have accompanied and remained with their parents who have migrated internally for employment or business, there does not seem to be a study so far on the educational level of children of internal migrants' parents job (Nielsen & Abildgaard, 2012).Therefore, it is necessary to study regarding the education of children who have accompanied and remain with their parents who have migrated internally for employment or business at least 15 percent of the population are internal migrants in Nepal (Clewett, 2015).Most of the young people are migrated for higher education.Education is the most common motive for migration, Where internal migration is typically assumed to be motivated by educational opportunities (Thomas, 2019).Children who migrate with parents, unlike left-behind children, can potentially benefit from staying with family (Lu et al., 2020), they had positive effects on educational achievement, health performance, and behavioral outcomes in comparison with being left behind children (Zheng et al., 2022).Being in the same class with local peers, getting to know teachers, and paying attention to their learning can make immigrant children do better academically (Xu et al., 2018).Most of the migration is from underdeveloped countries to developed countries and internal migration is also from rural to urban areas this is unswerving with the Ravenstein (1885) pull and push theory.The less privileged want to migrate and do so in search of more opportunities.In this way, there is a positive impact on the health condition and career development of the children of parents who migrate to the benefited areas (Issaka et al., 2016).
In the study, Santas and Eryurt (2020) note that the health condition of the children of rural areas and those who have migrated from rural areas to urban areas is better than the health conditions of the local children of urban areas.The study by Mishra et al. (2022) shows the prevalence of child nutritional indicators between migrants and non-migrant children across different background characteristics in India, 2015-16.The results showed that among the social groups, scheduled caste children had a high variation in underweight (34% vs. 41.6%) and stunting (36% vs. 46%) between migrants and non -migrants' children.Similarly, among scheduled tribes, the difference between migrants and non-migrants in child nutritional statuses was found as underweight (42% vs. 46.5%)and stunting (38.9% vs. 46.4%).
The study addresses this gap by analyzing the academic achievement of internal migrant children with parents from their place of origin, compared to local children.There have been limited studies on the academic performance of left-behind children and no research on the education level of children of parents who migrated for work or education.The study is particularly relevant in Nepal, where there is a lack of research on the educational differences between migrant and non-migrant parents' children.
This study underscores the need for comprehensive research that considers the effect of internal migration on educational achievement of migrant children.Bridging these knowledge gaps is essential for developing effective policies and interventions tailored to the specific contexts and needs of internal migrant children.

CONCLUSION
Migration can have financial benefits and social costs for children, impacting their educational outcomes and leading to mixed identities due to psychological and identity shifts.Internal migration is influenced by regional disparities, prompting parents to migrate internally for better educational opportunities for their children.The educational achievement of children from internal migrant families is influenced by factors such as parents' socioeconomic status, education level, migration duration, and the quality of education in the destination location.Policymakers and educators must understand the impact of internal migration on children's education, address challenges faced by internal migrant children, and develop strategies to support their educational goals.Further research is necessary to explore the educational status of internal migrant children.
Migration involves a combination of positive and negative factors that attract or repel individuals, with the family factor playing a significant role in children's resilience and academic performance.Parental migration is motivated by education as an investment in children's success.The phenomenon of children being left behind by migrating parents is a prevalent issue.Internal migration is primarily driven by the pursuit of educational opportunities of children.Migration, whether internal or international, can have positive effects on the educational achievement and career development of children particularly, when they migrate to areas with more opportunities.Understanding these dynamics is crucial for addressing the educational challenges faced by internal migrant children and developing effective interventions to support their educational success.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST
Authors confirm no conflicts of interest related to this review article, "Effect of Internal Migration of Families on the Educational Achievement of their Children," submitted to Asian Journal of Population Sciences.
Figure 1 Process of Article SearchIdentification

Table 1
Reviewed manuscript, objectives, study area, methods, design and population covered in the article

of Internal Migration of Families on the Educational Achievement of their Children Asian
Journal of Population Sciences[Volume 3, 15 January 2024, pp.83-97]