Ecology, Distribution, and Conservation Drivers of the Pangolin (Manis spp) in the Churia Landscape of Eastern Nepal

Abstract

Pangolins (Manis spp.) are among the most threatened mammals globally, yet their ecological patterns and conservation status in Nepal’s Churia region remain poorly documented. This study examines habitat preferences, distribution, key threats, and community-based conservation practices of the Indian pangolin (M. crassicaudata) and Chinese pangolin (M. pentadactyla) across 57 community forests in the Koshi landscape. Field observations and community monitoring show that pangolins are closely associated with mixed Shorea robusta and riverine forests that provide moderate canopy cover, well-drained soils, gentle slopes, and abundant ant and termite populations. The Indian pangolin is mostly found in lower and middle elevations, while the Chinese pangolin is more common at higher altitudes. The estimated population of 149 individuals reflects a decline of about 38% in community forest occupancy over the last three decades. The main pressures on pangolins include poaching linked to traditional beliefs, habitat loss from deforestation and infrastructure development, invasive species, repeated forest fires, and illegal cross-border trade. In response, Community Forest User Groups have implemented various conservation actions such as regular forest patrolling, protection of burrow sites, fire control measures, and support for alternative livelihood options. These efforts have improved local awareness and encouraged greater stewardship among communities. However, conservation outcomes are still limited due to weak integration of pangolin-specific measures within the Forest Operational Plan, inadequate monitoring systems, and continuing socio-cultural drivers of exploitation. The study highlights the need to strengthen the integration of species-focused conservation into forest management, improve monitoring approaches, and link conservation efforts more effectively with local livelihoods to ensure the long-term survival of pangolins in Nepal’s Churia landscape.