Closing the Willingness–Infrastructure Gap in End-of-Life EV Battery Management: Stakeholder Evidence and Policy Pathways for Urban Nepal

Abstract

The rapid electrification of Nepal’s transport sector has raised critical concerns about the sustainable management of end-of-life lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). While government incentives have accelerated electric vehicle (EV) adoption, institutional and technological readiness for battery recycling remains insufficient. This study provides a comprehensive, data-driven assessment of EV battery recycling in Nepal, integrating primary survey data (n = 120), stakeholder analysis, and policy evaluation. Quantitative results show moderate awareness but high stakeholder willingness to participate in recycling systems, particularly under Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) frameworks, while qualitative findings highlight gaps in infrastructure, governance, and technical capacity. To address these challenges, the study proposes a hybrid circular economy model that combines local battery dismantling with regional processing, supported by regulatory reforms and public–private partnerships. The findings contribute to sustainability transition theory in developing economies and offer practical policy recommendations aligned with global best practices.